Research Fellow
Institute for Social Marketing University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA
https://www.stir.ac.uk/people/nathancritchlow
Nathan Critchlow is currently a Griffith Edward's Academic Fellow for the Society for the Study of Addiction, and is based in Institute for Social Marketing and Health, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport. He specialises in quantitative methods to analyse marketing activity and the association with health-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours in consumers. His previous research includes analysing real-time retail data to monitor price and market changes following the introduction of standardised tobacco packaging, surveys of adolescent and young adult exposure to alcohol marketing, and other research into digital marketing, new media, sport sponsorship, and pricing. His current work includes research into tobacco, alcohol, gambling, and food marketing.
Evaluating the impact, effectiveness, and acceptability of statutory controls on alcohol marketing
PI: Dr Nathan Critchlow
Funded by: Society for the Study of Addiction and Institute of Public Health in Ireland
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What is the longer-term response of smokers and ex-smokers to standardised packaging and how does standardised packaging impact on health inequalities? Adult Tobacco Policy Survey Wave 3
PI: Dr Crawford Moodie
Funded by: Department of Health
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Alcohol Research Network (ACORN) UK/ROI
PI: Professor Niamh Fitzgerald
Funded by: Economic and Social Research Council
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Transitions to more harmful forms of gambling during Covid-19 pandemic: behaviours and targeted marketing in young people and bettors on sport
PI: Professor Kate Hunt
Funded by: UK Research and Innovation
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Adult Smokers' Perceptions of pack inserts with positive messaging: A naturalistic study
PI: Dr Crawford Moodie
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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Analysis of the 2019 Youth Alcohol Policy Survey
PI: Ms Anne Marie MacKintosh
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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Evaluating the Impact of Minimum Unit Pricing in Scotland: Observational Study of Small Retailers
PI: Ms Martine Stead
Funded by: NHS Health Scotland
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Awareness of alcohol marketing: A pre-implementation cross-sectional survey of adults in the Republic of Ireland
PI: Dr Nathan Critchlow
Funded by: Institute of Public Health in Ireland
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Exploring Alcohol Sponsorship of Professional Sport in Scotland and the Frequency and Nature of Marketing Exposure in Televised Broadcasts
PI: Dr Nathan Critchlow
Funded by: Alcohol Focus Scotland
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Improving Flu Vaccination Uptake by Healthcare Workers: a Study of Implementation and Attitudes
PI: Ms Martine Stead
Funded by: Department of Health
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What are the Impacts of Standardised Tobacco Packaging? A Synthesis of Standardised Tobacco Packaging Evaluation Research in the UK
PI: Ms Martine Stead
Funded by: Department of Health
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Exploring Food Marketing Through Digital Media
PI: Dr Nathan Critchlow
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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Retail Audit to Evaluate Standardised Packaging and its Impact in the UK
PI: Ms Martine Stead
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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360 Selfie: Capturing social, physical and environmental triggers relating to smoking cessation
PI: Dr Richard Purves
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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Analysis of Youth Alcohol Policy Survey
PI: Ms Anne Marie MacKintosh
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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The Identifying & Describing Arguments (IDEA) project.
PI: Professor Niamh Fitzgerald
Funded by: Cancer Research UK
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Keep Scotland Beautiful ‘nudge’ experiment to influence littering behaviour
PI: Mr Douglas Eadie
Funded by: Keep Scotland Beautiful
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Article
Critchlow N & Moodie C (2021) Awareness of alcohol marketing one year after initial implementation of Ireland's Public Health (Alcohol) Act and during the COVID-19 pandemic [One year after the Public Health Act]. Journal Of Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab353
Article
Moodie C, Best C, Critchlow N, Hitchman S, Stead M & McNeill A (2021) The impacts of including information about the number of carcinogens in smoke on standardized cigarette packs in the UK. European Journal of Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckab101
Commentary
Moodie C & Critchlow N (2021) Understanding the broader impacts of alcohol marketing: Time for a research agenda which includes adults. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 56 (5), pp. 614-616. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agab028
Article
Moodie C, Best C, Lund I, Scheffels J, Critchlow N, Stead M, McNeill A, Hitchman S & Mackintosh AM (2021) The response of smokers to health warnings on packs in the United Kingdom and Norway following the introduction of standardized packaging. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 23 (9), pp. 1551-1558. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntab027
Research Report
Alcohol marketing during the 2020 Six Nations Championship
Purves RI & Critchlow N (2021) Alcohol marketing during the 2020 Six Nations Championship. Scottish Health Action on Alcohol Problems (SHAAP), Institute of Alcohol Studies (IAS) and Alcohol Action Ireland (AAI). Edinburgh. https://shaap.org.uk/downloads/reports-and-briefings/364-alcohol-marketing-2021.html
Policy Document
Critchlow N, Marie MacKintosh A & Newberry Le Vay J (2021) Awareness of alcohol marketing among adolescents in Scotland: Findings from the 2017 and 2019 Youth Alcohol Policy Surveys. University of Stirling. Stirling. https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/public-policy-hub/policy-briefings/
Article
Birch JM, Critchlow N, Calman L, Petty R, Rosenberg G, Rumgay H & Vohra J (2021) The Frequency and Content of Discussions About Alcohol Use in Primary Care and Application of the Chief Medical Officer's Low-Risk Drinking Guidelines: A Cross-Sectional Survey of General Practitioners and Practice Nurses in the UK. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 56 (4), pp. 433-442. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agaa120
Article
Wardle H, Donnachie C, Critchlow N, Brown A, Bunn C, Dobbie F, Gray C, Mitchell D, Purves R, Reith G, Stead M & Hunt K (2021) The impact of the initial Covid-19 lockdown upon regular sports bettors in Britain: findings from a cross-sectional online study. Addictive Behaviors, 118, Art. No.: 106876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106876
Letter
Critchlow N, Moodie C & Jones D (2021) Health information and warnings on alcohol packaging in Ireland: it is time to progress the Public Health (Alcohol) Act 2018. Irish Journal of Medical Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-021-02719-8
Article
Moodie C, Best C, Hitchman SC, Critchlow N, MacKintosh AM, McNeill A & Stead M (2021) Impact of standardised packaging in the UK on warning salience, appeal, harm perceptions and cessation-related behaviours: A longitudinal online survey. Tobacco Control. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2021-056634
Article
Moodie C, Best C, Critchlow N, Stead M, McNeill A & Hitchman S (2021) The impact of including cessation resource information on health warnings on standardized tobacco packaging on awareness and use: A longitudinal online survey in the United Kingdom. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 23 (6), pp. 1068-1073. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntaa251
Article
Mitchell D, Moodie C, Ford A, MacKintosh AM, Critchlow N & Bauld L (2021) Youth perceptions of brand variant names on standardised cigarette packs, and responses to replacing these with numbers: A focus group study in Britain [Numbered packs for tobacco]. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2021.1902479
Article
Boniface S, Critchlow N, Severi K, MacKintosh AM, Hooper L, Thomas C & Vohra J (2021) Underage Adolescents' Reactions to Adverts for Beer and Spirit Brands and Associations with Higher Risk Drinking and Susceptibility to Drink: A Cross-Sectional Study in the UK. Alcohol and Alcoholism. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agab018
Policy Document
Betting and Gambling Covid-19 Impact study
Wardle H, Critchlow N, Donnachie C, Brown A & Hunt K (2021) Betting and Gambling Covid-19 Impact study. University of Stirling. Stirling. https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/public-policy-hub/policy-briefings/
Article
Critchlow N, Moodie C, Best C & Stead M (2021) Anticipated responses to a hypothetical minimum price for cigarettes and roll-your-own tobacco: An online cross-sectional survey with cigarette smokers and ex-smokers in the UK. BMJ Open, 11 (3), Art. No.: e042724. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042724
Addendum
Critchlow N, Newberry Le Vay J, MacKintosh AM, Hooper L, Thomas C & Vohra J (2021) Correction: Critchlow, N., et al. Adolescents' Reactions to Adverts for Fast-Food and Confectionery Brands That Are High in Fat, Salt, and/or Sugar (HFSS), and Possible Implications for Future Research and Regulation: Findings from a Cross-Sectional Survey of 11-19 Year Olds in the United Kingdom. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1689. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 (6), Art. No.: 3181. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063181
Article
Critchlow N, Rosenberg G, Rumgay H, Petty R & Vohra J (2020) Weight assessment and the provision of weight management advice in primary care: a cross-sectional survey of self-reported practice among general practitioners and practice nurses in the United Kingdom [Weight management assessment and advice in primary care]. BMC Family Practice, 21, Art. No.: 111. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-020-01184-z
Article
Mitchell D, Moodie C, Critchlow N & Bauld L (2020) Adolescents' reactions to, and perceptions of, dissuasive cigarettes: A focus group study in Scotland. Drugs: Education, Prevention, and Policy, 27 (6), pp. 462-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2020.1732300
Article
Mitchell D, Critchlow N, Moodie C & Bauld L (2020) Reactions to standardized cigarette packs with varying structural designs, and the association with smoking susceptibility: A postimplementation cross-sectional survey with never-smoking adolescents in Scotland. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 22 (11), pp. 2041-2050. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntaa109
Article
Hunt K, Critchlow N, Brown A, Bunn C, Dobbie F, Donnachie C, Gray C, Purves R, Reith G, Stead M, Mitchell D & Wardle H (2020) Protocol for a mixed-method investigation of the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and gambling practices, experiences and marketing in the UK: the "Betting and gaming Covid-19 impact study". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (22), Art. No.: 8449. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228449
Article
Critchlow N, Bauld L, Thomas C, Hooper L & Vohra J (2020) Awareness of marketing for high fat, salt or sugar foods, and the association with higher weekly consumption among adolescents: a rejoinder to the UK government's consultations on marketing regulation. Public Health Nutrition, 23 (14), pp. 2637-2646. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980020000075
Article
Critchlow N, Jones D, Moodie C, MacKintosh AM, Fitzgerald N, Hooper L, Thomas C & Vohra J (2020) Awareness of product-related information, health messages and warnings on alcohol packaging among adolescents: A cross-sectional survey in the United Kingdom. Journal Of Public Health, 42 (3), pp. e223-e230. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdz080
Letter
Increased support for standardised packaging in the UK: a longitudinal online survey
Moodie C, Best C, Critchlow N, Stead M, Hitchman SC & McNeill A (2020) Increased support for standardised packaging in the UK: a longitudinal online survey. Tobacco Control. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-055911
Article
Mitchell D, Critchlow N, Moodie C & Bauld L (2020) Reactions to, and trial intentions for, three dissuasive cigarette designs: a cross-sectional survey of adolescents in Scotland. Tobacco Control. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-055842
Article
Purves R, Critchlow N, Morgan A, Stead M & Dobbie F (2020) Examining the frequency and nature of gambling marketing in televised broadcasts of professional sporting events in the United Kingdom. Public Health, 184, pp. 71-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.02.012
Article
Wardle H, Banks J, Bebbington P, Blank L, Bowden Jones OBE H, Bramley S, Bunn C, Casey E, Cassidy R, Chamberlain SR, Close J, Critchlow N, Dobbie F, Hunt K & Purves R (2020) Open letter from UK based academic scientists to the secretaries of state for digital, culture, media and sport and for health and social care regarding the need for independent funding for the prevention and treatment of gambling harms. BMJ, 370, Art. No.: m2613. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2613
Article
Critchlow N, Moodie C, Stead M, Morgan A, Newall PW & Dobbie F (2020) Visibility of age restriction warnings, harm reduction messages and terms and conditions: A content analysis of paid-for gambling advertising in the United Kingdom [Consumer protection information in gambling advertising]. Public Health, 184, pp. 79-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.004
Website Content
Critchlow N (2020) Why the UK Government should not delay on new marketing restrictions for high fat, salt and sugar foods. University of Stirling Public Policy Blog [Blog post] 12.06.2020. https://policyblog.stir.ac.uk/2020/06/12/why-the-uk-government-should-not-delay-on-new-marketing-restrictions-for-high-fat-salt-and-sugar-foods/
Research Report
Stead M, Critchlow N, Eadie D, Fitzgerald N, Angus K, Purves R, McKell J, Marie MacKintosh A, Mitchell H, Sumpter C & Angus C (2020) Evaluating the impact of alcohol minimum unit pricing in Scotland: Observational study of small retailers. NHS Health Scotland/Public Health Scotland. Stirling. https://www.stir.ac.uk/media/stirling/services/faculties/sport-and-health-sciences/research/documents/MUP-evaluation-Small-Convenience-Stores-report.pdf
Article
Critchlow N, Newberry Le Vay J, MacKintosh AM, Hooper L, Thomas C & Vohra J (2020) Adolescents' reactions to adverts for fast-food and confectionery brands that are high in fat, salt, and/or sugar (HFSS), and possible implications for future research and regulation: Findings from a cross-sectional survey of 11-19 year olds in the United Kingdom. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (5), Art. No.: 1689. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051689
Conference Paper (unpublished)
Alcohol marketing in the UK: Lessons from the Youth Alcohol Policy Survey
Critchlow N (2020) Alcohol marketing in the UK: Lessons from the Youth Alcohol Policy Survey. 6th Global Alcohol Policy Conference, Dublin, 09.03.2020-11.03.2020. https://www.gapc2020.org/
Article
Critchlow N, MacKintosh AM, Thomas C, Hooper L & Vohra J (2019) Participation with alcohol marketing and user-created promotion on social media, and the association with higher-risk alcohol consumption and brand identification among adolescents in the UK [Social media, higher-risk consumption, and brand identification]. Addiction Research and Theory, 27 (6), pp. 515-526. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2019.1567715
Newspaper Article
Gambling and sport: how bookmakers win in voluntary 'whistle-to-whistle' advert ban
Purves R & Critchlow N (2019) Gambling and sport: how bookmakers win in voluntary 'whistle-to-whistle' advert ban. The Conversation. 07.11.2019.
Article
Maani Hessari N, Bertscher A, Critchlow N, Fitzgerarld N, Knai C, Stead M & Petticrew M (2019) Recruiting the "Heavy-Using Loyalists of Tomorrow": An Analysis of the Aims, Effects and Mechanisms of Alcohol Advertising, Based on Advertising Industry Evaluations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16 (21), Art. No.: 4092. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214092
Conference Proceeding
Newberry Le Vay J, Critchlow N & Vohra J (2019) "It's got adverts… Always, always there": Change over time in the impact of junk food marketing on children and young people's dietary behaviours [YOPS Poster]. In: UK Congress on Obesity 2019. Obesity Abstracts, Volume 1. UK Congress on Obesity 2019, Leeds, 12.09.2019-13.09.2019. Bristol: BioScientifica, p. P50. https://doi.org/10.1530/obabs.01.P50
Article
Mitchell D, Moodie C, Critchlow N & Bauld L (2019) Adolescents' perceptions of standardised cigarette packaging design and brand variant name post-implementation: A focus group study in Scotland [Adolescents' reactions to standardized packaging]. BMC Public Health, 19, Art. No.: 1227. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7552-0
Article
Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Eadie D & MacKintosh AM (2019) Introduction of standardized tobacco packaging during a 12-month transition period: Findings from small retailers in the United Kingdom. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 21 (7), pp. 871-878. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty006
Research Report
Critchlow N, Angus K, Stead M, Saw E, Newberry Le Vay J, Clarke M, Whiteside E, Froguel A & Vohra J (2019) Lessons From The Digital Frontline: Evidence to support the implementation of better regulation of digital marketing for foods and drinks high in fat, salt and sugar [HFSS Digital Regulation Report]. Cancer Research UK. London: Cancer Research UK. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30001.43366
Project Report
Critchlow N, Angus K, Stead M, Newberry La Vey J, Whiteside E, Clarke M, Hudson B & Vohra J (2019) Digital Feast: Navigating a digital marketing mix, and the impact on children and young people’s dietary attitudes and behaviours [Digital Feast: Narrative review]. Cancer Research UK. London, UK: Cancer Research UK. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.30091.54563
Article
Gambling marketing from 2014 to 2018: A literature review
Newall PWS, Moodie C, Reith G, Stead M, Critchlow N, Morgan A & Dobbie F (2019) Gambling marketing from 2014 to 2018: A literature review [Gambling marketing: A literature review]. Current Addiction Reports, 6 (2), pp. 49-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-019-00239-1
Article
Critchlow N, MacKintosh AM, Thomas C, Hooper L & Vohra J (2019) Awareness of alcohol marketing, ownership of alcohol branded merchandise, and the association with alcohol consumption, higher-risk drinking, and drinking susceptibility in adolescents and young adults: a cross-sectional survey in the UK [Alcohol marketing and consumption in young people in the UK]. BMJ Open, 9 (3), Art. No.: e025297. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025297
Article
Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Angus K, Eadie D & MacKintosh AM (2019) Difference between Recommended Retail Price and Sales Price for tobacco products in independent and convenience (small) retailers before and after the introduction of standardised tobacco packaging in the UK [Standardised packaging and RRP]. Tobacco Control, 28 (4), pp. 449-456. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2018-054409
Article
Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Angus K, Eadie D & MacKintosh AM (2019) Pricing of tobacco products during, and after, the introduction of standardized packaging: An observational study of retail price data from independent and convenience (small) retailers in the United Kingdom [Tobacco pricing and standardised packaging]. Addiction, 114 (3), pp. 523-533. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14488
Article
Stead M, Critchlow N, Patel R, MacKintosh AM & Sullivan F (2019) Improving uptake of seasonal influenza vaccination by healthcare workers: Implementation differences between higher and lower uptake NHS trusts in England. Infection, Disease and Health, 24 (1), pp. 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idh.2018.09.082
Research Report
The Effect of Gambling Marketing and Advertising on Children, Young People and Vulnerable People
Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Purves R, Newall PW, Reith G, Morgan A & Dobbie F (2019) The Effect of Gambling Marketing and Advertising on Children, Young People and Vulnerable People. GambleAware. London. https://about.gambleaware.org/research/research-publications/children-and-young-people/
Article
Mandatory policies for influenza vaccination: Views of managers and healthcare workers in England
Stead M, Critchlow N, Eadie D, Sullivan F, Gravenhorst K & Dobbie F (2019) Mandatory policies for influenza vaccination: Views of managers and healthcare workers in England. Vaccine, 37 (1), pp. 69-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.11.033
Article
Fitzgerald N, Egan M, de Vocht F, Angus C, Nicholls J, Shortt N, Nichols T, Maani Hessari N, McQuire C, Purves R, Critchlow N, Mohan A, Mahon L, Sumpter C & Bauld L (2018) Exploring the impact of public health teams on alcohol premises licensing in England and Scotland (ExILEnS): procotol for a mixed methods natural experiment evaluation. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18 (1), Art. No.: 123. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0573-z
Newspaper Article
Plain packaging for tobacco: what other countries can learn from the UK's experience
Critchlow N & Mitchell D (2018) Plain packaging for tobacco: what other countries can learn from the UK's experience. The Conversation. 18.12.2018.
Letter
Critchlow N, Stead M, Moodie C, Eadie D & MacKintosh AM (2018) Did independent and convenience (small) retailers comply with standardised tobacco packaging in the UK?. Tobacco Control, 27 (6), pp. 696-697. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054000
Article
Moodie C, Angus K, Mitchell D & Critchlow N (2018) How tobacco companies in the United Kingdom prepared for, and responded to, standardised packaging of cigarettes and rolling tobacco. Tobacco Control, 27 (e1), pp. e85-e92. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054011
Article
Assessing Change in Tobacco Visibility at Point-of-sale Following a Display Ban
Eadie D, Best C, Stead M, MacKintosh AM, Critchlow N, Purves R, Pearce J, Currie D, Ozakinci G, Amos A, MacGregor A & Haw S (2018) Assessing Change in Tobacco Visibility at Point-of-sale Following a Display Ban. Tobacco Regulatory Science, 4 (3), pp. 10-28. https://doi.org/10.18001/TRS.4.3.2
Article
Critchlow N, Moodie C, Bauld L, Bonner A & Hastings G (2017) Awareness of, and participation with, user-created alcohol promotion, and the association with higher-risk drinking in young adults. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 11 (2), Art. No.: 6429. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2017-2-4
Book Chapter
Health and well-being in the digital society
Critchlow N (2017) Health and well-being in the digital society. In: Bonner A (ed.) Social determinants of health: An interdisciplinary approach to social inequality and well-being. Bristol: Policy Press, pp. 103-117. https://policypress.co.uk/social-determinants-of-health#book-detail-tabs-stison-block-content-1-0-tab0
Article
Alcohol Marketing during the UEFA EURO 2016 Football Tournament: A Frequency Analysis
Purves R, Critchlow N, Stead M, Adams J & Brown K (2017) Alcohol Marketing during the UEFA EURO 2016 Football Tournament: A Frequency Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14 (7), Art. No.: 704. http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/14/7/704; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070704
Research Report
Foul play? Alcohol marketing during UEFA EURO 2016
Purves R, Critchlow N & Stead M (2017) Foul play? Alcohol marketing during UEFA EURO 2016. Institute for Social Marketing. http://www.ias.org.uk/uploads/pdf/IAS%20reports/rp24042017.pdf
Article
Critchlow N, Moodie C, Bauld L, Bonner A & Hastings G (2016) Awareness of, and participation with, digital alcohol marketing, and the association with frequency of high episodic drinking among young adults. Drugs: Education, Prevention, and Policy, 23 (4), pp. 328-336. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2015.1119247
Research Report
Study: An Assessment of Citizens' Exposure to Tobacco Marketing
Stead M, Bauld L, Bogdanovica I, Eadie D, MacKintosh AM, Murray S, Angus K, Critchlow N, Miguel Rey J, Hausemer P, Wilhelm C, Berteletti F, Toma A, Burch J & Lester R (2016) Study: An Assessment of Citizens' Exposure to Tobacco Marketing. European Commission. Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety. Health Programme, No. EAHC/2013/HEALTH/10 No. 2014 62 03. Publications Office of the European Union. https://dx.doi.org/10.2818/7898
