Inclusive and social-justice oriented pedagogies in English language classrooms: Insights from Türkiye, Pakistan, and the UK

This study explored how inclusive and social justice–oriented pedagogies are conceptualised and enacted in language teacher education across Türkiye, Pakistan, and Scotland. Employing a multiple-case, mixed-methods research design, it combined surveys, interviews, and policy-document analyses with a design-based intervention of co-created workshops, involving 66 learning teachers (referring to teachers at different stages of their professional development, including undergraduate, master’s, or doctoral students with varying levels of teaching experience) and 28 teacher educators. Our aim was to examine their knowledge, classroom practices, curricular contexts, and the policy landscapes shaping their teaching. By investigating multiple contexts, we sought to uncover both shared challenges and unique local dynamics influencing the integration of inclusive and social justice-oriented pedagogies in language education.

Findings, drawn from descriptive statistics, thematic analysis, and constant comparison, revealed a strong endorsement of social justice goals among participants and a genuine motivation to act. However, systemic barriers, including rigid curricula, lack of resources, high-stakes assessment pressures, and a persistent gap between policy rhetoric and classroom realities, constrained the potential for long-term change. The co-designed workshops emerged as powerful catalysts as they helped clarify concepts, demonstrate inclusive teaching strategies, and strengthen teacher agency. Participants stressed, however, that such short-term interventions must be embedded within continuous professional development and aligned curricula to create sustained impact. Context also shaped outcomes: while awareness of social justice principles is emerging but constrained by centralised curricula in Türkiye, grassroots commitment and advocacy flourish in Pakistan despite material limitations, and ESOL strengths coexist with neoliberal assessment pressures that restrict pedagogic freedom in Scotland.

We therefore argue for policy to translate into actionable guidance, embedding social justice across curricula and assessments, and investing in long-term, context-sensitive professional learning. Recognising teachers and teacher educators as agents of change and combining bottom-up professional agency with top-down structural support offers the most promising route to systemic transformation. Ultimately, this study underscores the importance of bridging policy, practice, and professional learning to foster language teacher education that is genuinely inclusive, equitable, and responsive to diverse learners. It provides empirical insights and practical recommendations for educators, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to enact meaningful, context-sensitive reform while shaping future research agendas.