A Cerebral Basis for Visual Discomfort and Visual Stress

Citation

Hibbard PB, Allen P, Asher JM, Burke B, Braithwaite JJ, Cole GG, Dow C, Evans BJW, Franklin A, Haigh SM, Hemphälä H, Hosking I, Keyes A, Lee C, Leonards U, Manning C, Maule J, Miller N, Monet K, O’Hare L, Penacchio O, Plant GT, Powell G, Price A, Schofield AJ, Slouka M, Sumner P, Valentine C, Wilcockson T, Yoshimoto S & Wilkins AJ (2026) A Cerebral Basis for Visual Discomfort and Visual Stress. Vision, 10 (2), p. 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/vision10020034

Abstract
Visual discomfort or visual stress is an uncomfortable subjective experience that occurs in response to specific visual stimuli. It affects a large proportion of the population to various degrees, disproportionately impacting those with heightened sensory sensitivities, particularly neurodivergent individuals. We argue that this might stem from a mismatch between the statistical properties of visual stimuli in human-made environments and those in natural environments that the visual system can process efficiently. We discuss the inefficiency with which images with certain spatial, chromatic and temporal characteristics are processed by the visual system and propose a cerebral mechanism to account for the discomfort they induce. The mechanism offers a potential explanation for the large individual differences in susceptibility to discomfort. We highlight two avenues for intervention: (1) environmental modifications aimed at reducing the prevalence of visually stressing stimuli in urban settings, and (2) individual-level strategies, such as personalised optical treatments. Addressing these challenges requires an interdisciplinary effort bridging neuroscience, vision science, interior and urban design and typography to create visually accessible and inclusive environments.

Keywords
visual discomfort; visual stress; image statistics; flicker; phantom array; lighting; efficient encoding; precision tints; cortical excitation; sensory sensitivity

Notes
Additional co-authors Katherine Batey 3, Cathy Manning 14, John Maule 15, Naomi Miller 16, Karen Monet 17, Louise O’Hare 18 Olivier Penacchio 19, Gordon T. Plant 21, Georgie Powell 22, Alice Price 22, Andrew J. Schofield 23, Miroslav Slouka 24, Petroc Sumner 26, Cleo Valentine 27, Thomas Wilcockson 28, Sanae Yoshimoto 29, Arnold J. Wilkins, 6 1 School of Psychology, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK 2 Vision and Hearing Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK 3 Vision Though Colour, Newcastle upon Tyne NE3 3PF, UK 4 School of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK 5 Psychology Department, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK 6 Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK 7 Department of Optometry and Visual Science, City St George’s, University of London, London EC1V 0HB, UK 8 Sussex Colour Group & Baby Lab, School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, UK 9 Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA 10 Division of Ergonomics and Aerosol Technology, Institution of Design Sciences, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden 11 Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 12 School of Electronic Engineering, Communication Engineering & Computer Science, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan-si 38541, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea 13 School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TU, UK 14 School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK 15 School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QH, UK 16 Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Portland, OR 97204, USA 17 Opticalm Visual Stress Clinic, Kanata South Business Park, 150 Terence Matthews Crescent, Suite A2 2nd Floor, Ottawa, ON K2M 1X4, Canada 18 School of Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 5LT, UK 19 Bridging Research in AI and Neuroscience, Computer Vision Center, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain 20 Computer Science Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain 21 Department of Translational Neuroscience and Stroke, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK 22 School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK 23 Department of Psychology, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK 24 Department of Telecommunications, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, 17. Listopadu 15/2172, 708 33 Ostrava, Czech Republic 25 indie Technologies Switzerland AG (EXALOS), Wagistrasse 24, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland 26 Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC), School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK 27 Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PX, UK 28 School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK 29 Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima 739-8521, Japan

Journal
Vision: Volume 10, Issue 2

• A Cerebral Basis for Visual Discomfort and Visual Stress